法律英语名词解释

Commonlaw

Commonlawreferstolawandthecorrespondinglegalsystemdevelopedthroughdecisionsofcourtsand

similartribunals(calledcaselaw),ratherthanthroughlegislativestatutesorexecutiveaction.

Commonlawislawcreatedandrefinedbyjudges:adecisioninacurrentlypendinglegalcasedepends

ondereisno

authoritativestatementofthelaw,judgeshavetheauthorityanddutytomakelawbycreatingprecedent.

Thebodyofprecedentiscalled"commonlaw"recases,whenparties

disagreeonwhatthelawis,anidealizedcommonlawcourtlookstopastprecedentialdecisionsofrelevant

ilardisputehasbeenresolvedinthepast,thecourtisboundtofollowthereasoning

usedinthepriordecision(thisprincipleisknownasstaredecisis).If,however,thecourtfinds

thatthecurrentdisputeisfundamentallydistinctfromallpreviouscases,itwilldecideasa"matter

offirstimpression."Thereafter,thenewdecisionbecomesprecedent,andwillbindfuturecourtsunder

theprincipleofstaredecisis.

Inpractice,commonlawsystemsareconsiderablymorecomplicatedthantheidealizedsystemdescribed

isionsofacourtarebindingonlyinaparticularjurisdiction,andevenwithinagiven

jurisdiction,mple,inmostjurisdictions,decisions

byappellatecourtsarebindingonlowercourtsinthesamejurisdictionandonfuturedecisionsof

thesameappellatecourt,butdecisionsofnon-appellatecourtsareonlynon-bindingpersuasiveauthority.

Interactionsbetweencommonlaw,constitutionallaw,statutorylawandregulatorylawalsogiverise

rstaredecisis,theprinciplethatsimilarcasesshouldbedecided

accordingtoconsistentprincipledrulessothattheywillreachsimilarresults,liesattheheart

ofallcommonlawsystems.

Commonlawlegalsystemsareinwidespreaduse,particularlyinthosenationswhichtracetheirlegal

heritagetoBritain,includingtheUnitedKingdom,mostoftheUnitedStates,andotherformercolonies

oftheBritishEmpiresuchasIndia,[2]Canada,ewZealand,AustraliaandHongKong.[3]

Injunction

Aninjunctionisanequitableremedyintheformofacourtorder,wherebyapartyisrequiredtodo,

ortorefrainfromdoing,tythatfailstoadheretotheinjunctionfacescivil

orcriminalpenaltiesandmayhavetopaydamagesoracceptsanctionsforfailingtofollowthecourt's

cases,breachesofinjunctionsareconsideredseriouscriminaloffencesthatmeritarrest

andpossibleprisonsentences.

Misrepresentation

safalsestatementoffactmadebyonepartyto

anotherparty,mple,undercertain

circumstances,falsestatementsorpromisesmadebyasellerofgoodsregardingthequalityornature

ngofmisrepresentation

allowsforaremedyofrescissionandsometimesdamagesdependingonthetypeofmisrepresentation.

Estoppel

Estoppelisalegaldoctrineatcommonlaw,whereapartyisbarredfromclaimingordenyinganargument

ral,

estoppelprotectsanaggrievedparty,ifthecounter-partyinducedanexpectationfromtheaggrieved

party,andtheaggrievedpartyreasonablyreliedontheexpectationandwouldsufferdetrimentifthe

expectationisnotmet.

Also,unconscionabilitybyabreachingpartyisalsosufficienttoestopthebreachingparty.

1

Estoppelisadefensethatpreventsarepresentorfromenforcinglegalrights,orfromrelyingona

setoffactsthatwouldgiverisetoenforceablerights(aidoractionsperformed),generally

eitseffectistodefeat

generallyenforceablelegalrights,,however,that

proprietaryestoppel(applicableinEnglishlandlaw)canbebothaswordandashieldandthescope

ofitsremedyiswide.

Foranexampleofestoppel,ditormightunofficially

suchforgivenessisnotformallydocumented,

thecreditormaybeestoppedfromchangingitsmindandseekingtocollectthedebt,becausethatchange

ameway,alandlordmightinformatenantthatrenthasbeenreduced,forexample,

enantreliesonthisnotice,thelandlord

couldbeestoppedfromcollectingthefullrent.

Estoppeliscloselyrelatedtothedoctrinesofwaiver,variation,andelectionandisappliedinmany

areasoflaw,includinginsurance,banking,employment,internationaltrade,ishlaw,the

conceptoflegitimateexpectationintherealmofadministrativelawandjudicialreviewisestoppel's

counterpartinpubliclaw,althoughsubtlebutimportantdifferencesexist.

ThistermappearstocomefromtheFrenchestoupail(oravariation),whichmeant"stopperplug",

misrelatedtotheverb"estop"

whichcomesfromtheOldFrenchtermestopper,meaning"stopup,impede".otethesimilaritybetween

theEnglishterms"estop"and"stop".

Caselaw

Caselaw(alsoknownasdecisionallaworjudicialprecedent)isthegeneraltermfortheprinciples

andrulesoflawsetforthinjudicialopinionsfromcourtsoflaw.[1]Caselawincorporatescourts'

decisionsfromindividualcasesandencompassescourts'interpretationsofstatutes,constitutional

provisions,administrativeregulationsand,insomecases,

lawisoftenpublishedinprintlawreportsorreporters(andincreasinglyoncourtwebsites)toestablish

precedent-rulestoapplyinfuturecourtdecisionsdealingwithsimilarsituations.

Forcountrieswithacommonlawlegalsystem,suchasintheUnitedKingdom,UnitedStates,andmost

oftheCommonwealthofations,ral,courtsincommonlaw

countriestreatthedecisionsofhigherappellatecourtsasnormative-layingdownrulesthatshould,

orinsomecasesmust,beusedtodecidesimilarlegaldisputes(called"bindingprecedent").Incountries

withlegalsystemsthatfollowthecivillawtraditionderivedfromRomanlaw,however,thecourtsare

notstrictlyboundbyrulesandprinciplesfromcaselaw.

Statute

mesact1900madebynswparliament

Astatuteisaformalwrittenenactmentofalegislativeauthoritythatgovernsacountry,state,city,

orcounty.[1]Typically,statutescommandorprohibitsomething,disoften

usedtodistinguishlawmadebylegislativebodiesfromthejudicialdecisionsofthecommonlawand

esaresometimesreferredtoaslegislationor

"blackletterlaw".Asasourceoflaw,statutesareconsideredprimaryauthority(asopposedtosecondary

authority).

Beforeastatutebecomeslawinsomecountries,itmustbeagreeduponbythehighestexecutiveinthe

government,countries,statutesareorganizedintopical

arrangements(or"codified")withinpublicationscalledcodes,

UnitedStates,statutorylawisdistinguishedfromandsubordinatetoconstitutionallaw.

2

[1]

Agency(law)

Agencyisanareaofcommerciallawdealingwithacontractualorquasi-contractualtripartite,or

non-contractualsetofrelationshipswhenanagentisauthorizedtoactonbehalfofanother(called

thePrincipal)tocreatealegalrelationshipwithaThirdParty.[1]Succinctly,itmaybereferredto

astherelationshipbetweenaprincipalandanagentwherebytheprincipal,expresslyorimpliedly,

ntis,thus,requiredtonegotiate

onbehalfoftanch

oflawseparatesandregulatestherelationshipsbetween:







AgentsandPrincipals;

AgentsandtheThirdPartieswithwhomtheydealontheirPrincipals'behalf;and

PrincipalsandtheThirdPartieswhentheAgentspurporttodealontheirbehalf.

ThecommonlawprincipleinoperationisusuallyrepresentedintheLatinphrase,quifacitperalium,

facitperse,whoactsthroughanother,actsinhisorherowninterestsanditisaparallel

concepttovicariousliabilityandstrictliabilityinwhichonepersonisheldliableinCriminallaw

orTortfortheactsoromissionsofanother.

Goodfaith

Goodfaith,orinLatinbonafides(bonafidemeans"ingoodfaith"),isthementalandmoralstate

ofhonesty,convictionastothetruthorfalsehoodofapropositionorbodyofopinion,orastothe

nceptisimportantinlaw,especiallyequitable

matters.

IncontemporaryEnglish,"bonafides"issometimesusedasasynonymforcredentials,background,or

documentationofaperson'sidentity."Showmeyourbonafides"canmean:WhyshouldItrustyou(your

goodfaithinthismatter)?sense,thephraseissometimesusedinjob

advertisements,andshouldnotbeconfusedwiththebonafideoccupationalqualificationsorthe

employer'sgoodfaitheffort,asdescribedbelow.[2]

Commissioner

Commissionerisinprincipalthetitlegiventotheholderofacommission,inthesenseofamandate,

whetherindividuallyorshared,notablyasmemberofacollegialcommission.

Inpracticethetitleofcommissionerhasevolvedtoincludeavarietyofseniorofficials,oftensitting

icular,commissionerfrequentlyreferstoseniorpoliceorgovernment

ommissionerisequivalenttoanambassador,betweenCommonwealthstatessharingthe

sameMonarchasheadofstate.

Thetitleisalsosometimesgiventoseniorofficialsintheprivatesector,forinstancemanyorth

Americansportsleagues.

Partnership

Apartnershipisatypeofbusinessentityinwhichpartners(owners)sharewitheachothertheprofits

rshipsareoftenfavoredover

corporationsfortaxationpurposes,asthepartnershipstructuredoesnotgenerallyincurataxonprofits

beforeitisdistributedtothepartners(snodividendtaxlevied).However,depending

onthepartnershipstructureandthejurisdictioninwhichitoperates,ownersofapartnershipmay

beexposedtogreaterpersonalliabilitythantheywouldasshareholdersofacorporation.

Jointandseveralliability

Underjointandseveralliability,aclaimantmaypursueanobligationagainstanyonepartyasifthey

werejointlyliableanditbecomestheresponsibilityofthedefendantstosortouttheirrespective

ansthatiftheclaimantpursuesonedefendantandreceives

3

[1]

payment,thatdefendantmustthenpursuetheotherobligorsforacontributiontotheirshareofthe

liability.

Jointandseveralliabilityismostrelevantintortclaims,wherebyaplaintiffmayrecoverallthe

damagesfromaeis

oftenappliedinnegligencecases,thoughitissometimesinvokedinotherareasoflaw.

IntheUnitedStates,46ofthe50stateshavearuleofjointandseveralliability,althoughinresponse

to"tortreform"efforts,somehavelimitedtheapplicabilityoftherule.

Tort

Tortlawisthenamegiventoabodyoflawthataddresses,andprovidesremediesfor,civilwrongs

nwhosufferslegaldamagesmaybeabletousetort

lawtoreceivecompensationfromsomeonewhoislegallyresponsible,or"liable,"forthoseinjuries.

Generallyspeaking,tortlawdefineswhatconstitutesalegalinjuryandestablishesthecircumstances

underwhichonepersonmaybeheldliableforanother'overintentionalactsand

accidents.

Forinstance,maysueAlicefor

lossesoccasionedbytheaccident(e.g.,costsofmedicaltreatment,lostincomeduringtimeoffwork,

painandsuffering,etc.).WhetherornotBrendawinshersuitdependsonifshecanproveAliceengaged

,BrendawouldattempttoproveAlicehadadutyandfailedtoexercisethe

standardofcarewhichareasonablepersonwouldrenderinthrowingtheball.

Oneofthemaintopicsofthesubstanceoftortlawisdeterminingthe"standardofcare"-alegal

ptherway,thebig

issueiswhetherapersonsuffersthelossfromhisowninjury,orwhetheritgetstransferredtosomeone

else.

Goingbacktotheexampleabove,ifAlicethrewtheballatBrendaonpurpose,Brendacouldsuefor

sanaccident,is,Brenda

mustshowthatherinjurywasreasonablyforeseeable,thatAliceowedBrendaadutyofcarenottohit

herwiththeball,andthatAlicefailedtomeetthestandardofcarerequired.

Inmuchofthewesternworld,njuredpartycannot

provethatthepersonbelievedtohavecausedtheinjuryactedwithnegligence,attheveryleast,tort

walsorecognizesintentionaltortsandstrictliability,which

applytodefendantswhoengageincertainactions.

Intortlaw,doesnotjustmeanaphysicalinjury,suchaswhereBrenda

esintortlawreflectanyinvasionofanynumberofindividual"interests."

Thisincludesinterestsrecognizedinotherareasoflaw,sfornuisance

asionandtrespass

stsinprospectiveeconomicadvantages

rofsituationscaused

bypartiesinacontractualrelationshipmayneverthelessbetortratherthancontractclaims,such

asbreachoffiduciaryduty.

Tortlawmayalsobeusedtocompensateforinjuriestoanumberofotherindividualintereststhat

arenotrecognizedinpropertyorcontractlaw,cludesaninterestinfreedom

fromemotionaldistress,privacyinterests,reprotectedbyanumberoftorts

suchasinfliction,privacytorts,tionandprivacytortsmay,forexample,allow

acelebrityrotected

interestsincludefreedomofmovement,protectedbytheintentionaltortoffalseimprisonment.

4

[1]

Theequivalentoftortincivillawjurisdictionsisdelict.[2]Thelawoftortscanbecategorisedas

partofthelawofobligations,butunlikevoluntarilyassumedobligations(suchasthoseofcontract,

ortrust),thedutiesimposedbythelawoftortsapplytoallthosesubjecttotherelevantjurisdiction.

Tobehavein'tortious'manneristoharmanother'sbody,property,orlegalrights,orpossibly,to

commitsatortiousactiscalleda"tortfeasor".[3]Tortsis

oneoftheAmericanBarAssociationmandatoryfirstyearlawschoolcourses.[4]

Piercingthecorporateveil

Thecorporatelawconceptofpiercing(lifting)thecorporateveildescribesalegaldecisionwhere

ashareholderordirectorofacorporationisheldliableforthedebtsorliabilitiesofthecorporation

despitethegeneralprinciplethatshareholdersareimmunefromsuitsincontractortortthatotherwise

ctrineisalsoknownas"disregardingthecorporateentity".

Thephrasereliesonametaphorofa"veil"thatrepresentstheveneerofformalitiesanddignities

thatprotectacorporation,whichcanbedisregardedatwillwhenthesituationwarrantslookingbeyond

the"legalfiction"ofacorporatepersontotherealityofotherpersonsorentitieswhowouldotherwise

beprotectedbythecorporatefiction.

Piercingthecorporateveilisnottheonlymeansbywhichadirectororofficerofacorporationcan

itycanbeestablishedthroughconventional

theoriesofcontract,agency,mple,insituationswhereadirectororofficeracting

onbehalfofacorporationpersonallycommitsatort,heandthecorporationarejointlyliableand

itisunnecessarytodiscusstheissueofpiercingthecorporateveil.

Thedoctrineisoftenusedincaseswhereliabilityisfound,butthecorporationisinsolvent.

Parentcompany

Aparentcompanyisacompanythatownsenoughvotingstockinanotherfirmtocontrolmanagementand

operationsbyinfluencingorelectingitsboardofdirectors;thesecondcompanybeingdeemedasa

initionofaparentcompanydiffersfromjurisdictionto

jurisdiction,withthedefinitionnormallybeingdefinedbywayoflawsdealingwithcompaniesinthat

jurisdiction.

Subsidiary

Asubsidiary,inbusinessmatters,isanentitythatiscontrolledbyabiggerandmorepowerfulentity.

Thecontrolledentityiscalledacompany,corporation,orlimitedliabilitycompany,andthecontrolling

entityiscalleditsparent(ortheparentcompany).Thereasonforthisdistinctionisthatalone

companycannotbeasubsidiaryofanyorganization;onlyanentityrepresentingalegalfictionasa

ndividualshavethecapacitytoactontheirowninitiative,

abusinessentitycanonlyactthroughitsdirectors,officersandemployees.

Themostcommonwaythatcontrolofasubsidiaryisachievedisthroughtheownershipofsharesinthe

haresgivetheparentthenecessaryvotestodeterminethecomposition

vesrisetothecommonpresumptionthat

50%re,however,otherwaysthatcontrolcan

comeaboutandtheexactrulesbothastowhatcontrolisneededandhowitisachievedcanbecomplex

(seebelow).Asubsidiarymayitselfhavesubsidiaries,andthese,inturn,mayhavesubsidiariesof

tandallitssubsidiariestogetherarecalledagroup,althoughthistermcanalso

applytocooperatingcompaniesandtheirsubsidiarieswithvaryingdegreesofsharedownership.

Subsidiariesareseparate,

thisreason,theydifferfromdivisions,whicharebusinessesfullyintegratedwithinthemaincompany,

andnotlegallyorotherwisedistinctfromit.

5

AnoperatingsubsidiaryisabusinesstermfrequentlyusedwithintheUnitedStatesrailroadindustry.

Inthecaseofarailroad,itreferstoacompanythatisasubsidiarybutoperateswithitsownidentity,

locomotivesandrollingstock.

Incontrast,anon-operatingsubsidiarywouldexistonpaperonly(,bonds,articlesof

incorporation)andwouldusetheidentityandrollingstockoftheparentcompany.

Branch

Abranchisawoodystructuralmemberconnectedtobutnotpartofthecentraltrunkofatree(orsometimes

ashrub).Largebranchesareknownasboughsandsmallbranchesareknownastwigs.

Whilebranchescanbenearlyhorizontal,vertical,ordiagonal,themajorityoftreeshaveupwardly

diagonalbranches.

ArticlesofIncorporation

TheArticlesofIncorporation(sometimesalsoreferredtoastheCertificateofIncorporationorthe

CorporateCharter)aretheprimaryrulesgoverningthemanagementofacorporationintheUnitedStates,

ivalentintheUnitedKingdomandvarious

othercountriesisArticlesofAssociation.

Bylaw

Abylaw(sometimesalsospelledby-laworbyelaw)mostcommonlyreferstoacityormunicipallawor

ordinance,passedundertheauthorityofacharterorprovincial/statelawspecifyingwhatthingsmay

beregulatedbythemunicipality.

Liability

Inthemostgeneralsense,aliabilityisanythingthatisahindrance,orputsindividualsata

lsobeusedasaslangtermtodescribesomeonethatputsateamorgroupofwhich

theyareamemberatadisadvantage,andwouldthusbebetteroffwithout.

Capital(economics)

Ineconomics,capitalorcapitalgoodsorrealcapitalreferstofactorsofproductionusedtocreate

goodsorservicesthatarenotthemselvessignificantlyconsumed(thoughtheymaydepreciate)inthe

nceand

accounting,capitalgenerallyreferstofinancialwealth,especiallythatusedtostartormaintain

abusiness.

Authorisedcapital

Theauthorisedcapitalofacompany(sometimesreferredtoastheauthorisedsharecapitalorthenominal

capital,particularlyintheUnitedStates)isthemaximumamountofsharecapitalthatthecompany

theauthorisedcapital

can(andfrequentlydoes)remainunissued.

Thepartoftheauthorisedcapitalwhichhasbeenissuedtoshareholdersisreferredtoastheissued

sharecapitalofthecompany.

Sharecapital

Sharecapitalorissuedcapital(UKEnglish)orcapitalstock(USEnglish)[1]referstotheportion

ofacompany'sequitythathasbeenobtained(orwillbeobtained)bytradingstocktoashareholder

mple,acompanycansetasidesharecapital

toexchangeforcomputerserversinsteadofdirectlypurchasingtheserversfromexistingequity.

Thepaid-upcapitaldoesnotspeakabouttheshares.

Preferredstock

Preferredstock,alsocalledpreferredsharesorpreferenceshares,istypicallya'higherranking'

stockthanvotingshares,anditstermsarenegotiatedbetweenthecorporationandtheinvestor.

6

Preferredstockusuallycarriesnovotingrights,[1][2]butmaycarrysuperiorpriorityovercommonstock

redstockmaycarryadividendthatispaid

redstockmayhaveaconvertibility

redstockholderswillbepaidoutinassetsbeforecommonstockholders

fthepreferredstockarestatedina"Certificateof

Designation".

Consolidation(business)

ness,itoftenrefers

totancialaccounting

termofconsolidationreferstotheaggregatedfinancialstatementsofagroupcompanyasconsolidated

ationtermofconsolidationreferstothetreatmentofagroupofcompaniesandother

heHalsbury'sLawsofEngland,'amalgamation'isdefined

as"ablendingtogetheroftwoormoreundertakingsintooneundertaking,theshareholdersofeach

blendingcompany,becoming,substantially,aybe

amalgamations,eitherbytransferoftwoormoreundertakingstoanewcompany,ortothetransferof

oneormorecompaniestoanexistingcompany".Thus,thetwoconceptsare,substantially,thesame.

However,thetermamalgamationismorecommonwhentheorganizationsbeingmergedareprivateschools

orregiments.

on-executivedirector

Anon-executivedirector(ED,alsoXD)oroutsidedirectorisamemberoftheboardofdirectorsof

eisnotanemployeeofthe

edifferentiatedfrominsidedirectors,whoare

membersoftheboardalsoservingasexecutivemanagersofthecompany(mostoftenascorporateofficers).

Businessjudgmentrule

ThebusinessjudgmentruleisanAmericancaselaw-derivedconceptinCorporationslawwherebythe

"directorsofacorporation...areclothedwith[the]presumption,whichthelawaccordstothem,

ofbeing[motivated]intheirconductbyabonafideregardfortheinterestsofthecorporationwhose

affairsthestockholdershavecommittedtotheircharge"[1]andwherebyacourtwillrefusetoreview

theactionsofacorporation'sboardofdirectorsinmanagingthecorporationunlessthereissome

allegationofconductthatthedirectorsviolatedtheirdutyofcaretomanagethecorporationtothe

denisonthepartychallengingthedecisiontoestablishfactsrebutting

thepresumption.[2]

Derivativesuit

Ashareholderderivativesuitisalawsuitbroughtbyashareholderonbehalfofacorporationagainst

,thethirdpartyisaninsiderofthecorporation,suchasanexecutiveofficer

olderderivativesuitsareuniquebecauseundertraditionalcorporatelaw,management

olderderivativesuits

ederivativesuits

varythetraditionalrolesofmanagementandshareholders,manyjurisdictionshaveimplementedvarious

proceduralrequirementstoderivativesuits.

Mergersandacquisitions

Thephrasemergersandacquisitions(abbreviatedM&A)referstotheaspectofcorporatestrategy,

corporatefinanceandmanagementdealingwiththebuying,sellingandcombiningofdifferentcompanies

thatcanaid,finance,orhelpagrowingcompanyinagivenindustrygrowrapidlywithouthavingto

createanotherbusinessentity.

7

Contract

Acontractisanexchangeofpromisesbetweentwoormorepartiestodo,orrefrainfromdoing,anact

tosay,acontract

isanexchangeofpromisesforthebreachofwhichthelawwillprovidearemedy.

Agreementissaidtobereachedwhenanoffercapableofimmediateacceptanceismetwitha"mirror

image"acceptance(ie,anunqualifiedacceptance).Thepartiesmusthavethenecessarycapacityto

contractandthecontractmustnotbeeithertrifling,indeterminate,ct

lawisbasedontheprincipleexpressedintheLatinphrasepactasuntservanda(usuallytranslated

"pactsmustbekept",butmoreliterally"agreementsaretobekept").[2]Breachofcontractisrecognized

meswrittencontractsarerequired,suchaswhenbuying

ahouse.[3]However,mostcontractscanbeandaremadeorally,suchaspurchasingabookorasandwich.

Contractlawcanbeclassified,asishabitualincivillawsystems,aspartofagenerallawofobligations

(alongwithtort,unjustenrichmentorrestitution).

Consideration

romisedaction,oromissionofaction,

aketheformofmoney,

physicalobjects,services,rtiestoacontractmustpassconsideration

totheotherpartyfortheretobeavalidcontract.

However,evenifacourtdecidesthereisnocontract,theremightbeapossiblerecoveryunderQuantum

meruit(sometimesreferredtoasaQuasi-contract)orpromissoryestoppel.

Proprietaryestoppel

Thetraditionalversionofproprietaryestoppelarisesinrelationtorightstousethelandofthe

owner,an:







[1]

onepartyrepresentsthatheorsheistransferringaninterestinlandtoanother,butwhat

isdonehasnolegaleffect,or

merelypromisesatsometimeinthefuturetotransferlandoraninterestinlandtoanother,

and

knowsthattheotherpartywillspendmoneyorotherwiseacttohisorherdetrimentinreliance

onthesupposedorpromisedtransfer,

,inDillwynvLlwellyn(1862)4DeG.F.&rpromiseda

housetohissher

sfatherdied,thesonclaimedtobetheequitable

ownottvBarber

(1880)15ChD96,FryJconsideredthatfiveelementshadtobeestablishedbeforeproprietaryestoppel

couldoperate:











theplaintiffmusthavemadeamistakeastohislegalrights;

theplaintiffmusthavedonesomeactofreliance;

thedefendant,thepossessorofalegalright,mustknowoftheexistenceofhisownrightwhich

isinconsistentwiththerightclaimedbytheplaintiff;

thedefendantmustknowoftheplaintiff'smistakenbelief;and

thedefendantmusthaveencouragedtheplaintiffinhisactofreliance.

Althoughproprietaryestoppelwasonlytraditionallyavailableindisputesaffectingtitletoreal

property,etaryestoppelisclosely

relatedtothedoctrineofconstructivetrust(seenowCobbevYeoman'sRow[2008]UKHL55).

8

Theterm"proprietaryestoppel"isnotusedinAmericanlaw,butispartandparcelofthegeneraldoctrine

ishlaw,proprietaryestoppelisdistinctfrompromissoryestoppel.

Mistake(contractlaw)

Incontractlawamistakeisanerroneousbelief,atcontracting,

lawhasidentifiedtwodifferenttypesofmistake

incontract:"unilateralmistake"and"mutualmistake,"sometimescalled"commonmistake."

Misrepresentation

safalsestatementoffactmadebyonepartyto

anotherparty,mple,undercertain

circumstances,falsestatementsorpromisesmadebyasellerofgoodsregardingthequalityornature

ngofmisrepresentation

allowsforaremedyofrescissionandsometimesdamagesdependingonthetypeofmisrepresentation.

(1986)18HLR219itispossibletomakeamisrepresentationeitherby

wordsorbyconduct,althoughnoteverythingsaidordoneiscapableofconstitutingamisrepresentation.

Generally,statementsofopinionorintentionarenotstatementsoffactinthecontextof

misrepresentation.[1]Ifonepartyclaimsspecialistknowledgeonthetopicdiscussed,thenitismore

likelyforthecourtstoholdastatementofopinionbythatpartyasastatementoffact.[2]

Liquidateddamages

Liquidateddamages(alsoreferredtoasliquidatedandascertaineddamages)aredamageswhoseamount

thepartiesdesignateduringtheformationofacontractfortheinjuredpartytocollectascompensation

uponaspecificbreach(e.g.,lateperformance).

Whendamagesarenotpredetermined/assessedinadvance,thentheamountrecoverableissaidtobe'at

large'(tobeagreedordeterminedbyacourtortribunalintheeventofbreach).

Parolevidencerule

Theparolevidenceruleisthelegalapplicationofaruleofsubstantivelawincontractcasesthat

preventsapartytoawrittencontractfromcontradicting(orsometimesaddingto)thetermsofthe

contractbyseekingtheadmissionofevidence"extrinsic"(outside)mple,Carlagreesin

writingtosellBettyacarfor$1,rguesthatCarltoldherthatshewouldonlyneedtopayCarl$

parolevidencerulewouldgenerallypreventBettyfromtestifyingtothisconversationbecausethetestimony($800)

woulddirectlycontradictthewrittencontract'sterms($1,000).

Frustrationofpurpose

Inthelawofcontracts,ation

ofpurposeoccurswhenanunforeseeneventunderminesaparty'sprincipalpurposeforenteringinto

acontract,andbe

frequentlyarisingasaresultofgovernmentaction,anythirdparty(orevennature)canfrustrate

acontractingparty'sprimarypurposeforenteringintothecontract.

Warranty

Incommercialandconsumertransactions,awarrantyisanobligationorguaranteethatanarticleor

servicesoldisasfactuallystatedorlegallyimpliedbytheseller,andthatoftenprovidesfora

specificremedysuchasrepairorreplacementintheeventthearticleorservicefailstomeetthe

hofwarrantyoccurswhenthepromiseisbroken,i.e.,aproductisdefectiveornot

asshouldbeexpectedbyareasonablebuyer.

Anticipatoryrepudiation

Anticipatoryrepudiation(oranticipatorybreach)isaterminthelawofcontractsthatdescribesa

declarationbyoneparty(thepromisingparty)toacontract,thatshedoesnotintendtoliveupto

9

uchaneventoccurs,theotherparty(theperformingparty)

r,therepudiationcanbe

retractedbythepromisingpartysolongastherehasbeennomaterialchangeinthepositionofthe

ctionoftherepudiationrestorestheperformer'sobligation

toperformonthecontract.

Tenderoffer

derofferisapublic,

openoffer(usuallyannouncedinanewspaperadvertisement)byanacquirertoallstockholdersofa

publiclytradedcorporationtotendertheirstockforsaleataspecifiedpriceduringaspecifiedtime,

eroffers,thebiddercontacts

shareholdersdirectly,ectorsofthecompany

nitedStates,tenderoffersareregulated

bytheWilliamsAct.

Acceptance

Acceptanceusuallyreferstocaseswhereapersonexperiencesasituationorcondition(oftenanegative

oruncomfortablesituation)withoutattemptingtochangeit,protest,misusedin

spirituality,inEasternreligiousconceptssuchasBuddhistmindfulness,andinhumanpsychology.

Religionsandpsychologicaltreatmentsoftensuggestthepathofacceptancewhenasituationisboth

dislikedandunchangeable,ancemay

implyonlyalackofoutward,behavioralattemptsatpossiblechange,butthewordisalsousedmore

meonemaydecidetotake

noactionagainstasituationandyetbesaidtohavenotacceptedit.

Fundamentalbreach

Afundamentalbreachofacontract,sometimesknownasarepudiatorybreach,isabreachsofundamental

thatitpermitsthedistressedpartytoterminateperformanceofthecontract,inadditiontoentitling

thatpartytosuefordamages.

Lien

Inlaw,alienisaformofsecurityinterestgrantedoveranitemofpropertytosecurethepayment

eroftheproperty,whograntsthelien,is

referredtoasthelienorandthepersonwhohasthebenefitofthelienisreferredtoasthelienee.

Treaty

Atreatyisanagreementunderinternationallawenteredintobyactorsininternationallaw,namely

ymayalsobeknownas:(international)agreement,

protocol,covenant,convention,exchangeofletters,lessoftheterminology,allofthese

internationalagreementsunderinternationallawareequallytreatiesandtherulesarethesame.(ote

thatinUnitedStatesconstitutionallaw,theterm"treaty"hasaspecialmeaningwhichismorerestricted

thanitsmeaningininternationallaw;seebelow.)

Treatiescanbelooselycomparedtocontracts:botharemeansofwillingpartiesassumingobligations

amongthemselves,andapartytoeitherthatfailstoliveuptotheirobligationscanbeheldliable

tralprincipleoftreatylawisexpressedinthemaxim

pactasuntservanda—"pactsmustberespected".

Asovereignstateisapoliticalassociationwitheffectivesovereigntyoverageographicareaand

usuallyincludesthesetofinstitutionsthatclaimtheauthority

tomaketherulesthatgovernthepeopleofthesocietyinthatterritory,thoughitsstatusasastate

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oftendependsinpartonbeingrecognizedbyanumberofotherstatesashavinginternalandexternal

sovereigntyoverit.

Self-defense(orself-defence—seespellingdifferences)istheactofdefendingoneself,one's

propertyorthewell-beingofanotherfromphysicalharm.[1]Whilethetermmaydefineanyformofpersonal

defense,itisstronglyassociatedwithcivilianhand-to-hand[dubious–discuss]defensetechniques.

Self-defensedefinesacivilianactivityasopposedtoHand-to-handcombatinamilitarycontext.

TerritorialjurisdictioninUnitedStateslawreferstoacourt'spowerovereventsandpersonswithin

rtdoesnothaveterritorialjurisdictionover

theeventsorpersonswithinit,thenthecourtcannotbindthedefendanttoanobligationoradjudicate

orialjurisdictionistobedistinguishedfromsubject-matter

jurisdiction,whichisthepowerofacourttorenderajudgmentconcerningacertainsubjectmatter,

orpersonaljurisdiction,whichisthepowerofacourttorenderajudgmentconcerningparticularpersons,

subject-matterjurisdiction,territorialjurisdictionmaybewaived,even

unintentionally,aljurisdiction,territorialjurisdiction,subject-matter

jurisdiction,andpropernoticetothedefendantareprerequisitesforavalidjudgment.

Personaljurisdiction(UnitedStates)

PersonaljurisdictioninUnitedStateslawreferstoacourt'spoweroveraparticulardefendant(in

personamjurisdiction)oranitemofproperty(inremjurisdiction).Ifacourtdoesnothavepersonal

jurisdictionoveradefendantorproperty,thenthecourtcannotbindthedefendanttoanobligation

aljurisdictionistobedistinguishedfrom

subject-matterjurisdiction,whichisthepowerofacourttorenderajudgmentconcerningacertain

subjectmatter,orterritorialjurisdiction,whichisthepowerofacourttorenderajudgmentconcerning

subject-matterjurisdiction,personaljurisdictionmay

bewaived,evenunintentionally,aljurisdiction,territorialjurisdiction,

subject-matterjurisdiction,andpropernoticetothedefendantarethemostfundamentalconstitutional

prerequisitesforavalidjudgment.

Universaljurisdiction

Universaljurisdictionoruniversalityprincipleisaprincipleininternationallawwherebystates

claimcriminaljurisdictionoverpersonswhoseallegedcrimeswerecommittedoutsidetheboundaries

oftheprosecutingstate,regardlessofnationality,countryofresidence,oranyotherrelationwith

tebacksitsclaimonthegroundsthatthecrimecommittedisconsidered

acrimeagainstall,whichanystateisauthorizedtopunish,asitistooserioustotolerate

ceptofuniversaljurisdictionisthereforecloselylinkedtothe

ideathatcertaininternationalnormsareergaomnes,orowedtotheentireworldcommunity,aswell

astheconceptofjuscogens-thatcertaininternationallawobligationsarebindingonallstates

andcannotbemodifiedbytreaty.

Stateimmunity

Therulesofstateimmunityconcerntheprotectionwhichastateisgivenfrombeingsuedinthecourts

esrelatetolegalproceedingsinthecourtsofanotherstate,notinastate's

esdevelopedatatimewhenitwasthoughttobeaninfringementofastate'ssovereignty

rearenowsubstantial

exceptionstotheruleofimmunity;inparticular,astatecanbesuedwhenthedisputearisesfrom

acommercialtransac

newUnitedationsConventiononJurisdictionalImmunitiesofStatesandtheirProperty,whichisnot

yetinforce,notcovercriminalproceedings,

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anditdoesnotallowcivilactionsforhumanrightsabusesagainststateagentswheretheabusehas

occurredinanothercountry.

Successionofstates

Successionofstatesisatheoryininternationalrelationsregardingtherecognitionandacceptance

ofanewlycreatedstatebyotherstates,basedonaperceivedhistoricalrelationshipthenewstate

oryhasitsrootin19thcenturydiplomacy.

Stateproperty

moststates,thestateownszoos,libraries,schools,andparks;someisreservedforrestricteduse,

suchasmilitarybasesandresearchlaboratories.

Governmentdebt(alsoknownaspublicdebtornationaldebt)ismoney(orcredit)owedbyanylevel

ofgovernment;eithercentralgovernment,federalgovernment,municipalgovernmentorlocalgovernment.

ationalityisatherelationshipbetweenapersonandtheirstateoforigin,culture,association,

affiliationand/alityaffordsthestatejurisdictionoverthepersonandaffordsthe

persontheprotectionofthestate.

ationaltreatment

ationaltreatment

ationaltreatment,ifastategrants

aparticularright,benefitorprivilegetoitsowncitizens,itmustalsograntthoseadvantagesto

ontextofinternationalagreements,

astatemustprovideequaltreatmenttothosecitizensofotherstatesthatareparticipatinginthe

edandlocally-producedgoodsshouldbetreatedequally—atleastaftertheforeign

goodshaveenteredthemarket.[1]

Diplomaticprotection

Ininternationallaw,diplomaticprotection(ordiplomaticespousal)isameansforaStatetotake

diplomaticandotheractionagainstanotherStateonbehalfofitsnationalwhoserightsandinterests

aticprotection,whichhasbeenconfirmedindifferentcases

ofthePermanentCourtofInternationalJusticeandtheInternationalCourtofJustice,isadiscretionary

righncludeconsular

action,negotiationswiththeotherState,politicalandeconomicpressure,judicialorarbitral

proceedingsorotherformsofpeacefuldisputesettlement.

Extradition

Extraditionistheofficialprocessbywhichonenationorstaterequestsandobtainsfromanothernation

nnationstates,extraditionis

ub-nationalregions(forexample,theindividualstatesoftheU.S.),

whereextraditionisrequiredbylawitismoreaccuratelyknownasrendition.

Rightofasylum

Rightofasylum(orpoliticalasylum)isanancientjuridicalnotion,underwhichapersonpersecuted

forpoliticalopinionsorreligiousbeliefsinhisorherowncountrymaybeprotectedbyanothersovereign

authority,aforeigncountry,orChurchsanctuaries(asinmedievaltimes).Politicalasylumshould

notbemistakenwithmodernrefugeelaw,whichratherdealswithmassiveinfluxofpopulation,while

therightofasylumconcernsindividualsandisusuallydeliveredinacase-to-casebasis.[

Condominium

Acondominium,orcondo,isaformofhousingtenureandotherrealpropertywhereaspecifiedpart

ofapieceofrealestate(usuallyofanapartmenthouse)isindividuallyownedwhileuseofandaccess

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tocommonfacilitiesinthepiecesuchashallways,heatingsystem,elevators,exteriorareasisexecuted

underlegalrightsassociatedwiththeindividualownershipandcontrolledbytheassociationofowners

uially,thetermisoftenusedtoreferto

theunititselfinplaceoftheword"apartment".Acondominiummaybesimplydefinedasan"apartment"

thatthetenant"owns"asopposedtorents.

Internalwaters

Anation'sinternalwaterscoversallwaterandwaterwaysonthelandwardsideofthebaselinefrom

whichanation'sterritorialwatersisdefined.[citationneeded]Itincludeswaterwayssuchasriversandcanals,

ingtotheUnitedationsConventionontheLawof

theSea,thecoastalnationisfreetosetlaws,regulateanyuse,nvessels

havenorightofpassagewithininternalwaters,andthislackofrighttoinnocentpassageisthekey

differencebetweeninternalwatersandterritorialwaters.[

InternationalRivers

InternationalRiversisanon-profit,non-governmental,environmentalandhumanrightsorganization

basedinBerkeley,din1985byahostofsocialandenvironmentalactivists,

InternationalRiversworkswithaglobalnetworkofpolicyandfinancialanalysts,scientists,

journalists,developmentspecialists,localcitizensandvolunteerstoaddressdestructivedamsand

theirlegaciesinover60countries.

Territorialwaters

Territorialwaters,oraterritorialsea,asdefinedbythe1982UnitedationsConventionontheLaw

oftheSea,isabeltofcoastalwatersextendingatmosttwelvenauticalmilesfromthebaseline(usually

themeanlow-watermark)ritorialseaisregardedasthesovereignterritory

ofthestate,althoughforeignships(bothmilitaryandcivilian)areallowedinnocentpassagethrough

it;thissovereigntyalsoextendstotheairspaceoverandseabedbelow.

Prescription(law)

Prescription(law)isthemethodofsovereigntytransferofaterritorythroughinternationallaw

analogouiptioninvolves

theopenencroachmentbythenewsovereignupontheterritoryinquestionforaprolongedperiodof

time,actingasthesovereign,ctrine

legalizesdejurethedefactotransferofsovereigntycausedinpartbytheoriginalsovereign'sextended

negligenceand/iptioncanalsobesaidtohaveoccurredwhen,

inthecontextofaterritorialdispute,thesituationhasdevelopedtosuchadegreethattorestore

sovereigntytotheoriginal"rightful"sovereignwoulddisrupttheestablishedordertosuchadegree

astobeunfeasible;hencethetransferofsovereigntydejuretothenewsovereign.

Cession

Mostbroadly,cession(tocede)rnationallaw

nis"asurrender;ayielding;agivingup."[1]

Itisvoluntary,asopposedtoannexation,whichisforcible.[

Self-determination

Self-determinationisdefinedasfreechoiceofone’sownactswithoutexternalcompulsion,and

especiallyasthefreedomofthepeopleofagiventerritorytodeterminetheirownpoliticalstatus

rwords,itistherightofthepeopleofacertain

nationtodecidehowtheywanttobegovernedwithouttheinfluenceofanyothercountry.[1]Thelatter

isacomplexconceptwithconflictingdefinitionsandlegalcriteriafordeterminingwhichgroupsmay

[1]

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legitimatelyclaimtherighttoself-determination.[2].Thisoftencoincideswithvariousnationalist

movements.

Referendum

Areferendum(pluralreferendumsorreferenda),ballotquestion,orplebiscite(fromLatinplebiscita,

originallyadecreeoftheConciliumPlebis)isadirectvoteinwhichanentireelectorateisasked

yresultintheadoptionofanewconstitution,

aconstitutionalamendment,alaw,therecallofanelectedofficialorsimplyaspecificgovernment

erendumorplebisciteisaformofdirectdemocracyideallyfavouringthemajority.

Innocentpassage

Innocentpassageisaconceptinadmiraltylawwhichallowsforavesseltopassthroughtheterritorial

tedStatesDepartmentofDefensedefines

innocentpassageas:

"Therightofallshipstoengageincontinuousandexpeditioussurfacepassagethroughtheterritorial

seaandarchipelagicwatersofforeigncoastalstatesinamannernotprejudicialtoitspeace,good

order,eincludesstoppingandanchoring,butonlyifincidentaltoordinary

navigationornecessarybyforcemajeureordistress,orforthepurposeofrenderingassistanceto

persons,ships,oraircraftindangerordistress."

Contiguouszone

Thecontiguouszoneisabandofwaterextendingfromtheouteredgeoftheterritorialseatoupto

24nauticalmiles(44km)fromthebaseline,withinwhichastatecanexertlimitedcontrolforthe

purposeofpreventingorpunishing"infringementofitscustoms,fiscal,immigrationorsanitarylaws

andregulationswithinitsterritoryorterritorialsea".Thiswilltypicallybe12nauticalmiles(22km)

wide,butcouldbemore(ifastatehaschosentoclaimaterritorialseaoflessthan12nauticalmiles),

orless,ifitwouldotherwiseoverlapanotherstate'r,unliketheterritorial

seathereisnostandardruleforresolvingsuchconflicts,andthestatesinquestionmustnegotiate

tedStatesinvokedacontiguouszoneon24September1999.

Anexclusiveeconomiczoneextendsfor200nauticalmiles(370km)beyondthebaselinesoftheterritorial

sea,thusitincludestheterritorialseaanditscontiguouszone.[3]Acoastalnationhascontrolof

alleconomicresourceswithinitsexclusiveeconomiczone,includingfishing,mining,oilexploration,

r,itcannotregulateorprohibitpassageorloiteringabove,

on,orunderthesurfaceofthesea,whetherinnocentorbelligerent,withinthatportionofitsexclusive

1982,coastalnationsarbitrarilyextendedtheir

territorialwatersinanefforttocontrolactivitieswhicharenowregulatedbytheexclusiveeconomic

zone,suchasoffshoreoilexplorationorfishingrights(seeCodWar).Indeed,theexclusiveeconomic

zoneisstillpopularly,thougherroneously,calledacoastalnation'ental

shelf

Thecontinentalshelfofacoastalnationextendsouttoitscontinentalmargin,butatleast200nautical

miles(370km)tinentalmarginisdefinedbyaseries

ofpointsnotmorethan60nauticalmiles(111km)apartwherethethicknessofsedimentaryrocksis

atleastonepercentoftheheightofthecontinentalshelfabovethefootofthecontinentalslope,

butnotmorethan60nauticalmiles(110km)tofthecontinentalslopeiswhere

tinentalmargincannotexceed350nautical

miles(648km)beyondthebaselinesoftheterritorialseaor100nauticalmiles(185km)beyondthe

2,500-metredepth,unless"naturalcomponentsofthecontinentalmargin,suchasitsplateaux,rises,

caps,banksandspurs"stalnationhascontrolofall

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[2]

resourcesonorunderitscontinentalshelf,livingornot,butnocontroloveranylivingorganisms

abovetheshelfthatarebeyonditsexclusiveeconomiczone.[4]Irelandhasbecomeoneofthefirst

countriestodefineitscontinentalshelfinaccordancewiththeUconvention.

Protocols

Ininternationallawandinternationalrelations,aprotocolisgenerallyatreatyorinternational

colcanamendthe

previoustreaty,stotheearlieragreementarenotrequiredto

adopttheprotocol;sometimesthisismadeclearerbycallingitan"optionalprotocol",especially

wheremanypartiestothefirstagreementdonotsupporttheprotocol.

Declaration(law)

Inlaw,adeclarationordinarilyreferstoajudgmentofthecourtoranawardofanarbitrationtribunal

isabindingadjudicationoftherightsorotherlegalrelationsofthepartieswhichdoesnotprovide

hedeclarationismadebyacourt,itisusuallyreferredtoasa

mmonly,wheredeclaratoryreliefisawardedbyanarbitrator,itisnormally

calledadeclaratoryaward.

Retorsion

Retorsion(Frenchrétorsion,fromLatinretortus(influencedbyLateLatin,1585–95,torsi,

[1]

[

atwisting,wringing),AphraseusedinInternationalLawisanactperpetratedbyonenationupon

anotheriicalmethods

ofretorsionaretheuseofcomparablyseveremeasuresagainstcitizensoftheforeignnationfound

withinthebordersoftheretaliatingnation.[

Reprisal

Inwarfare,areprisalisalimitedanddeliberateviolationofthelawsofwartopunishanenemywho

lyexecutedreprisalisnotanatrocity.

Tobelegallyjustified,areprisalcanonlybedirectedagainstthepartycarryingouttheoriginal

violation,canonlybecarriedoutasalastresort,afterhavinggivenformalnoticeoftheplanned

reprisal,mustbeproportionatetotheoriginalviolation,musthavetheaimofpersuadingtheoriginal

violatortocomplywiththelegallyacceptedbehaviorinfuture,andmustnotcontinueaftertheillegal

behaviorends.

Mediation,aformofalternativedisputeresolution(ADR)or"appropriatedisputeresolution",aims

toassisttwo(ormore)tiesthemselvesdeterminethe

conditionsofanysettlementsreached—

disputesmayinvolve(asparties)states,organizations,communities,individualsorother

representativeswithavestedinterestintheoutcome.

Mediatorsuseappropriatetechniquesand/orskillstoopenand/orimprovedialoguebetweendisputants,

aimingtohelpthepartiesreachanagreement(withconcreteeffects)ly,

allpartiesmustviewthemediatorasimpartial.

Disputantsmayusemediationinavarietyofdisputes,suchascommercial,legal,diplomatic,workplace,

communityandfamilymatters.

Athird-partyrepresentativemaycontractandmediatebetween(say)

workers’uniongoesonstrike,adisputetakesplace,andthecorporationhiresathirdpartytointervene

inattempttosettleacontractoragreementbetweentheunionandthecorporation.

Conciliationisanalternativedisputeresolution(ADR)processwherebythepartiestoadispute

(includingfutureinterestdisputes)agreetoutilizetheservicesofaconciliator,whothenmeets

iationdiffersfrom

arbitrationinthattheconciliationprocess,inandofitself,hasnolegalstanding,andtheconciliator

15

usuallyhasnoauthoritytoseekevidenceorcallwitnesses,usuallywritesnodecision,andmakesno

award.

Conciliationdiffersfrommediationinthatthemaingoalistoconciliate,mostofthetimebyseeking

ation,themediatortriestoguidethediscussioninawaythatoptimizesparties

needs,takesfeelingsintoaccountandreframesrepresentations.

Inconciliationthepartiesseldom,ifever,actuallyfaceeachotheracrossthetableinthepresence

oftheconciliator.

Arbitration,aformofalternativedisputeresolution(ADR),isalegaltechniquefortheresolution

ofdisputesoutsidethecourts,whereinthepartiestoadisputereferittooneormorepersons(the

"arbitrators","arbiters"or"arbitraltribunal"),bywhosedecision(the"award")theyagreetobe

ettlementtechniqueinwhichathirdpartyreviewsthecaseandimposesadecisionthat

islegallybindingforbothsides.[1]OtherformsofADRincludemediation(aformofsettlementnegotiation

facilitatedbyaneutralthirdparty)rehelpful,however,

simplytoclassifyarbitrationasaformofbindingdisputeresolution,equivalenttolitigationin

thecourts,andentirelydistinctfromtheotherformsofdisputeresolution,suchasnegotiation,

mediation,ordeterminationsbyexperts,ationismostcommonly

usedfortheresolutionofcommercialdisputes,particularlyinthecontextofinternationalcommercial

ofarbitrationisfarmorecontroversialinconsumerandemploymentmatters,where

arbitrationisnotvoluntarybutisinsteadimposedonconsumersoremployeesthroughfine-print

contracts,denyingindividualsoftheirrighttoaccessthecourts.

Arbitrationca-binding

arbitrationis,onthesurface,r,theprincipaldistinctionisthatwhereas

amediatorwilltrytohelpthepartiesfindamiddlegroundonwhichtocompromise,thearbitrator

remainstotallyremovedfromthesettlementprocessandwillonlygiveadeterminationofliability

and,ifappropriate,anindicationofthequantumofdamagespayable.

Legalguardian

Alegalguardianisapersonwhohasthelegalauthority(andthecorrespondingduty)tocareforthe

personalandpropertyinterestsofanotherperson,y,apersonhasthestatusof

guardianbecausethewardisincapableofcaringforhisorherowninterestsduetoinfancy,incapacity,

untriesandstateshavelawsthatprovidethattheparentsofaminorchildare

thelegalguardiansofthatchild,andthattheparentscandesignatewhoshallbecomethechild'slegal

guardianintheeventofdeath.

Obligation

Anobligationisarequirementtotakesomecourseofaction,realso

obligationsinothernormativecontexts,suchasobligationsofetiquette,socialobligations,and

possiblyintermsofpolitics,re

generallylegalobligations,whichcanincurapenaltyforunfulfilment,althoughcertainpeopleare

obligedtocarryoutcertainactionsforotherreasonsaswell,whetherasatraditionorforsocial

tionsvaryfrompersontoperson:forexample,apersonholdingapoliticalofficewill

generallyhavefarmoreobligationsthananaverageadultcitizen,whothemselveswillhavemore

tionsaregenerallygrantedinreturnforanincreaseinanindividual’s

rightsorpower.

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