法律英语原文

LessonOne:LegalSystem法律制度

Background背景

自从哥伦布(ChristopherColumbus)于1492年航行至美洲之后，大批欧洲人便开

始拥向这片"新大陆"。不过，人们通常把第一批英国定居者(thefirstEnglish

settlers)于1607年到达弗吉尼亚(Virginia)的詹姆斯顿(Jamestown)视为美国法律制

度历史的起点。美国法制史可以大体上分为两个时期，即英属殖民地时期(the

PeriodoftheEnglishColonies)和美利坚合众国时期(thePeriodoftheUnited

States)。虽然美国的法律制度是在英国法律传统的基础上形成和发展起来的，但

是在近四百年的历史进程中，美国的法律制度也形成了一些不同于英国法律制度

的特点，如公诉制度(publicprosecution)等。

美国属于普通法系(CommonLawLegalSystem)国家，其法律制度有两个基本特

点：其一是以分散制(decentralization)为原则；其二是以判例法(caselaw)为主体。

美国除联邦政府外，还有州政府、县政府、市政府、镇政府等等，而且这些政府

都是相互独立的，各自在其管辖范围内享有一定的立法权和执法权。因此，有人

说美国是"一个有许多政府的国家"(acountryofmanygovernments)；而美国的法

律体系则是一个"零散的无系统"(fragmentalnosystem)。诚然，美国现在也有

很多成文法(writtenlaw)或制定法(statutorylaw)，但是其法律制度仍是以判例法为

主体的。换言之，"遵从前例"(staredecisis)仍然是美国司法活动中最重要的原则

之一。以上两点对于理解美国的法律制度具有重要意义。

Text课文

PartOne

ew

nationcomparedwithmanyothercountries,anditisnew,too,inthesensethatitis

constantlybeingrenewedbytheadditionofnewelementsofpopulationandofnew

eoldestofthe"new"nations--thefirstone

heoldestwrittenconstitution,the

oldestcontinuousfederalsystem,andtheoldestpracticeofselfgovernmentofany

nation.

OneofthemostinterestingfeaturesofAmericasyouthisthatthewholeofits

leofits

historyis,therefore,recorded:indeed,itissafetosaythatnoothermajornationhas

socomprehensivearecordofitshistoryashastheUnitedStates,foreventssuchas

thosethatarelostinthelegendarypastofItalyorFranceorEnglandarepartofthe

Americanrecordisnotonly

comprehensive;acesnotonlytherecordofthecolonialeraand

oftheationsince1776,butofthepresentfiftyStatesaswell,andtheintricate

,totakeaveryelementary

example,thereportsoftheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtfillsome350volumes,and

thereportsofsomeStatesarealmostequallyvoluminous:thereaderwhowantsto

tracethehistoryoflawinAmericaisconfrontedwithover5,000stoutvolumesof

legalcases.

oonedocument,nohandfulofdocuments,canproperlybesaidtorevealthe

nhundredsandthousandsof

documentsstrikeaconsistentnote,overmorethanahundredyears,wehavearightto

ndredsandthousandsofdocumentsaddress

themselvesinthesameways,tothesameoverarchingproblems,wehavearightto

readfromthemcertainconclusionswhichwecancallnationalcharacteristics.

PartTwo

TheAmericanlegalsystem,liketheEnglish,ismethodologicallymainlyacaselaw

eldsofprivatelawstillconsistprimarilyofcaselawandtheextensive

andsteadilygrowingstatutorylawcontinuestobesubjecttobindinginterpretation

dgeofthecaselawmethodaswellasofthetechniqueof

workingwithcaselawthereforeisofcentralimportanceforanunderstandingof

Americanlawandlegalmethodology.

TheCommonLawishistoricallythecommongenerallaw--withsupremacyover

loca

enforcementofaclaimpresupposedtheexistenceofaspecialformofaction,awrit,

withtheresultthattheoriginalcommonlawrepresentedasystemof"actions"similar

texisted(in1227)aclaimcouldbeenforced;

therewasnorecourseforaclaimwithoutawrit,stem

becameinflexiblewhenthe"ProvisionsofOxford"(1258)prohibitedthecreationof

newwrits,exceptfortheflexibilitywhichthe"writuponthecase"allowedandwhich

laterledtothedevelopmentofcontractandtortlaw.

Thenarrowlimitsoftheformsofactionandthelimitedrecoursetheyprovidedledto

thedevelopmentofequitylawandequitycaselaw."Equity",initsgeneralmeaning

ofdoing"equity",decidingexaequoetbono,wasfirstgrantedbytheKing,andlater

byhisChancelloras"keeperoftheKing'sconscience",toaffordreliefinhardship

ifteenthcentury,however,equitylawandequitycaselawdevelopedinto

anindependentlegalsystemandjudiciary(CourtofChancery)whichcompetedwith

esandmaximsbecamefixedand,toadegree,

lcharacteristicsofequitylawinclude:relief

intheformofspecificperformance(incontrasttothecommonlawawardof

compensatorydamages),theinjunction(atemporaryorfinalordertodoornottodoa

specificact),thedevelopmentofsocalledmaximsofequitylawwhichpermeated

theentirelegalsystemandinmanycasesexplaintheoriginofmodernlegalconcepts.

However,equitablereliefregularlywilllieonlywhenthecommonlawreliefis

tance,specificperformanceforthepurchaseofrealpropertywill

begrantedbecausecommonlawdamagesaredeemedtobeinadequatesincethey

cannotcompensatethebuyerinviewoftheuniquenessattributedtorealproperty.

Asthecommonlaw,equitylawbecamepartofAmericanlaweitherthroughjudicial

,bothlegalsystemshave

beenmergedinmanyAmericanjurisdictions(beginningwithewYorkin1848),

withtheresultthatthereisonlyoneformofcivilsuitinthesejurisdictionsaswellas

wStatescontinuetomaintainaseparatechancerycourt.

evertheless,thereferencetothehistoricaldevelopmentisimportantbecause,onthe

onehand,itexplainstheoriginandsignificanceofmanycontemporarylegalconcepts

(forinstancethedivisionoftitleinthelawofproperty)and,ontheotherhand,itis

stillrelevantforthedecisionofsuchquestionswhether,forinstance,thereisarightto

atrialbyjury(onlyinthecaseofcommonlawsuits,inothercasesonlybeforethe

judge).Inaddition,thedifferentiationwilldeterminewhetherthe"ordinary"common

lawreliefofdamagesappliesorwhetherthe"extraordinary"equityremedyof

specificperformanceisavailable.

"Caselaw"describestheentirebodyofjudgemadelawandtodayincludescommon

eciseandconfusingusagetheterms"commonlaw"

and"caselaw"areoftenusedsynonymously,withtheterm"commonlaw"inthis

usageconnotingjudgemadelawingeneralascontrastedwithstatutorylaw."Case

law"alwaysconnotesjudgemadelaw,while"commonlaw"incontrast--depending

onthemeaningintended--describeseitherthejudgemadelawincommonlawsubject

mattersor,moreextensively,alljudgemadelaw.

LessonTwo：LegalProfession法律职业

Background背景

美国的法律职业由律师、法官、检察官和法学教师组成。不过，这几种人又都可

以称为"律师"(lawyer)，而且他们都可以是律师协会(Bar)成员。由此可见，美国

法律职业内部的"职业划分"并不象中国及世界上大多数国家那样严格和确定。诚

然，这里有语言习惯问题，但它也在一定程度上反映了美国各种法律工作者之间

人员变换的频繁性，而且这种变换总以律师为中心。美国的法官一般都从律师中

产生，而且他们在担任法官期间仍可保留律师资格，只是不能从事律师业务而已。

美国的检察官与律师之间几乎没有任何职业差别。实际上，美国的检察官就被称

为律师(attorney)。检察官与律师(我们中国人所熟悉之含义上的律师)之间的区别

仅在于前者受雇于政府，后者受雇于私人或自己开业；前者在刑事案件中负责公

诉，后者在刑事案件中负责辩护。此外，美国的法学教师一般都是当地的律师。

美国律师之多，在世界上堪称第一。据1984年的统计，美国共有649万名律

师，其与人口的比例为1∶364。美国律师多的主要原因是法律在其社会生活中

起着非常重要的作用。除各种法律纠纷外，人们从生到死、从结婚到离婚、从生

活到工作，往往都需要律师的帮助。有些人几乎事事都要请教律师。诚然，这说

明美国人具有很强的法律意识，但也说明美国的许多法律规定过于复杂。一般来

说，美国人认为到法院去解决社会生活中的法律纠纷是天经地义的，但这并不等

于说美国人喜欢打官司。例如，美国有一个流传颇广的谐音字谜："有一种套服

无人喜欢，是什么?"(it?)回答是："

打官司。"(lawsuits.)其实，美国人事事律师也往往出于无可奈何。因此，美国

的律师才得到了各种各样、褒贬不一的外号，如："租用之"(hiredguns)；"讼棍

"(shysters)；"职业投刀手"(professionalknifethrowers)；"限用之友"(limitedpurpose

friends);"社会工程师"(socialengineers)；"社会正义之斗士"(championsforsocial

justice)等。

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PartOne：TheBar

Theregulationofthelegalprofessionisprimarilytheconcernofthestates,eachof

quirethreeyearsof

ateadministersitsownwrittenexaminationto

allstates,however,makeuseoftheMultistateBarExam,

adaylongmultiplechoicetest,towhichthestateaddsadaylongessay

antialfractionofallapplicantssucceed

onthefirsttry,,overforty

thousandpersonssucceedinpassingtheseexaminationseachyearand,afteran

inquiryintotheircharacter,

esforadmissionto

practicebeforethefederalcourtsvarywiththecourt,butgenerallythoseentitledto

practicebeforethehighestcourtofastatemaybeadmittedbeforethefederalcourts

uponcompliancewithminorformalities.

Alawyer'spracticeisusuallyconfinedtoasinglecommunityfor,althoughalawyer

maytraveltorepresentclients,oneisonlypermittedtopracticeinastatewhereone

stomarytoretainlocalcounselformattersinother

r,onewhomovestoanotherstatecanusuallybeadmitted

withoutexaminationifonehaspracticedinastatewhereonehasbeenadmittedfor

sometime,oftenfiveyears.

Alawyermaynotonlypracticelaw,butispermittedtoengageinanyactivitythatis

tuncommonforthepracticinglawyertoserveonboards

ofdirectorsofcorporateclients,toengageinbusiness,andtoparticipateactivelyin

rremainsamemberofthebarevenafterbecomingajudge,an

employeeofthegovernmentorofaprivatebusinessconcern,oralawteacher,and

ivelysmallnumberof

lawyersgiveuppracticeforresponsibleexecutivepositionsincommerceandindustry.

Themobilityaswellasthesenseofpublicresponsibilityintheprofessionis

evidencedbythecareerofHarlanFiskeStonewhowas,atvarioustimes,asuccessful

ewYorklawyer,aprofessoranddeanoftheColumbiaSchoolofLaw,Attorney

GeneraloftheUnitedStates,andChiefJusticeoftheUnitedStates.

tinction

betweenbarristersandsolicitorsfoundinEnglanddidnottakerootintheUnited

States,andthereisnobranchoftheprofessionthathasaspecialorexclusiverightto

appearincourt,noristhereabranchthatspecializesinthepreparationoflegal

ricanlawyersdomainincludesadvocacy,counselling,and

rmore,withinthespherebroadlydefinedasthe"practiceoflaw"the

ieldofadvocacy,therulesare

fairlyclear:anyindividualmayrepresenthimselforherselfincourtbut,withthe

exceptionofafewinferiorcourts,onlyalawyermayrepresentanotherincourt.

onlawyersare,however,authorizedtorepresentothersinformalproceedingsofa

esofdemarcationareless

clearintheareasofcounsellinganddraftingoflegalinstruments,asforexample

betweenthepracticeoflawandthatofaccountinginthefieldoffederalincome

r,thestrictapproachofmostAmericancourtsisindicatedbya

decisionofewYorkshighestcourtthatalawyeradmittedtopracticeinaforeign

countrybutnotinewYorkisprohibitedfromgivinglegaladvicetoclientsinew

York,eventhoughtheadviceislimitedtothelawoftheforeigncountrywherethe

gnlawyermay,however,beadmittedtothebarofoneof

thestatesandmay,evenwithoutbeingadmitted,adviseanAmericanlawyerasa

consultantonforeignlaw.

PartTwo：LawyersinPrivatePractice

Amongthesefifteenlawyersinpractice,nine,aclearmajority,aresinglepractitioners.

Theremainingsixpracticeinlawfirms,whicharegenerallyorganizedaspartnerships.

Fourorfiveofthesesixarepartnersandtheothersareassociates,atermappliedto

endtowardgroup

houtmostofthenineteenthcenturylaw

practicewasgeneralratherthanspecialized,itschiefingredientwasadvocacyrather

thancounsellinganddrafting,andtheprototypeoftheAmericanlawyerwasthe

specializationbeganinthelatterpartofthatcenturyinthe

egrowthofbigbusiness,big

government,andbiglabor,theworkofthelawyeraccomodateditselftotheneedsof

clientsf

bestlawyerswereattractedtothisworkandleadershipofthebargravitatedtopersons

whorarelyifeverappearedincourtandwhoweresoughtafterasadvisors,planners,

helawyerregardsitassoundpracticetobecontinuously

familiarwithclientsbusinessproblemsandtoparticipateatallstepsintheshaping

usinesstransactionsarerarelyundertakenwithoutadviceof

counsel.

PartThree:HouseCounsel

Outofeverytwentylawyers,twoareemployedbyprivatebusinessconcerns,suchas

industrialcorporations,insurancecompanies,andbanks,usuallyashouseorcorporate

wthofcorporations,the

complexityofbusiness,andthemultitudeofproblemsposedbygovernment

regulationmakeitdesirableforsuchfirmstohaveintheiremploypersonswithlegal

trainingwho,atthesametime,areintimatelyfamiliarwiththeparticularproblems

ecorporationsthelegaldepartmentmaynumberone

eralcounsel,whoheadstheoffice,isusuallyanofficerof

thecompanyandmayserveonimportantpolicymakingcommitteesandperhapseven

ounselremainmembersofthebarandareentitled

toappearincourt,r,

itisthehousecounselsskillasadvisorratherthanasadvocatethatisavalued

ntlyintouchwiththeemployersproblems,housecounselisideally

situatedtopracticepreventivelawandmayalsobecalledupontoadvisethecompany

onitsbroaderobligationtothepublicandthenation.

PartFour：LawyersinGovernment

Aparalleldevelopmenthastakenplaceingovernmentandtwooutoftwentylawyers

arenowemployeesofthefederal,state,county,andmunicipalgovernments,

thoseenteringpublicservicearerecentlaw

graduateswhofindgovernmentsalariessufficientlyattractiveatthisstageoftheir

careersandseekthetrainingthatsuchservicemayofferasapreludetoprivate

tionsontopsalaries,however,discouragesomefromcontinuingwith

orityservesbyappointmentinthelegaldepartmentsofa

tedStatesDepartment

ofJusticealoneemploysmorethantwothousands,andtheLawDepartmentofthe

areengagedaspublicprosecutors.

Federalprosecutors,theUnitedStatesattorneysandtheirassistants,areappointedby

the

prosecutors,sometimesknownasdistrictattorneys,arecommonlyelectedbyeach

e,lawyersin

governmentaredirectlyengagedinlegalwork,sincelawtrainingisinfrequently

r,asmallbutimportant

minoritythatconstitutesanexceptiontothisruleconsistsofthosewhohavebeen

appointedtohighexecutivepositionsandthosewhohavebeenelectedtopolitical

theparticipationoflawyersingovernmenthasdeclinedrecently,for

twocenturieslawyershavemadeuproughlyhalfoftheCongressoftheUnitedStates

iguresbearoutthecommentofChiefJusticeStone

that,"otraditionofourprofessionismorecherishedbylawyersthanthatofits

leadershipinpublicaffairs."

LessonThree:LegalEducation法律教育

Background背景

美国的法律教育体制具有一个不同于世界上其他国家的特点，即没有一般意义上

的法学本科生。美国法学院的学生都是本科毕业生。换言之，申请入法学院学习

者必须已在其他专业领域内获得了学士学位。这反映了美国人注重权利和法律的

传统。他们认为，法律事务涉及人的各种权利和复杂的社会生活，因此从事法律

工作的人应该象医生一样，具有比从事其他职业的人更为丰富的学识和经历。从

理论上讲，在任何专业领域内获得学士学位的人都可以考法学院；但是在实践中，

法学院学生多在政治学(PoliticalScience)、经济学(Economics)、刑事司法(Criminal

Justice)、社会学(Sociology)、新闻学(Journalism)等学科获有学士学位。

虽然美国律师协会(ABA)对其认可的法学院有统一的评估标准，但是各法学院在

学位设置和课程设置上仍有很大的自主性和灵活性。一般来说，美国法学院设置

的学位主要有法律博士(JD,即JurisDoctor)、法学硕士(LLM，即MasterofLaws)

和法学博士(SJD，即DoctorofJuridicalScience)。法律博士学位课程是法学院的

基本教育课程，犹如中国及其他国家的法学专业本科课程。法律博士学位的学制

一般为三年，其第一年以必修课(RequiredCourse)为主，包括合同法(Contract

Law)、侵权法(TortLaw)、财产法(PropertyLaw)、刑法(CriminalLaw)、民事诉讼

(CivilProcedure)和法律文书写作(LegalWriting)等；第二年和第三年则以选修课

(ElectiveCourse)为主，学生可以根据自己的兴趣和意愿从几十门法律课程中选修

若干门，但要达到学校规定的学分标准。法学硕士和法学博士的培养属于法学院

的研究生教育。攻读法学硕士学位的人必须已经获得了法律博士学位或者在其他

国家获得了法学学士学位；其学制一般为一至二年；其学习方式以修课为主，而

且法学院一般允许学生以增修一定学分的方式代替毕业论文。攻读法学博士学位

的人一般应已获得了法学硕士或法律博士学位；其学制一般为三至五年；其学习

内容主要为撰写学位论文，但法学院院长或其导师也可能要求其选修一定课程或

从事一定研究工作。法学院很少开设专门面向研究生的课程，因此研究生多与"

本科生"(JD生)一起听课。

美国法学院的教授在教学过程中较重视对批判性思维(criticalthinking)方式的培

养，且多采用案例教学法(CaseMethod)和问答式即苏格拉底式教学法(Socratic

Method)。诚然，在美国的法学教授中亦不乏偏爱讲演式教学法(LectureMethod)

的"说书人"(story-teller)。

Text课文

In1983,over125,000lawstudentswerestudyinginmorethan170ABAaccredited

lawschoolsincludingpubliclawschoolssupportedinpartbygovernmentfunds;

privatelawschoolssupportedbycontributionsfromindividualsandfoundationfunds;

andloc

virtuallytheonlywaytoprepareformembershipinthelegalprofession,lawschools

intheUnitedStatesfulfillseveralfunctionsincludingprofessionaltrainingand

socializationoffuturelawyersandscreeningandgatekeepingforentrancetothe

hereisnocentralinstitutionwherealllawyerspractice,theonly

institutionalexperiencewhichlawyershaveincommonislawschool.

Thecriticismswhichrangefrom"mildtocaustic"ofthewayinwhichlawschools

havecarriedoutthesefunctionsandofthefunctionsthemselveshavebeenpersistent,

divers

criticismshavefocussedonthecurriculumandthedominanceofthecasemethod;the

distributionofpowerandprestigereflectedinthehierarchywithinandamongthelaw

schools;andtheimbalanceintermsofwomenandminoritiesinthestudentbodyand

facultyinthelawschools.

PartOne：CurriculumandtheCaseMethod

ThetraditionalfirstyearprogramofferedinvirtuallyallAmericanlawschools

includescontracts,torts,property,Kennedy

hasdescribedthetraditionalfirstyearcurriculumasbasicallyteachingtheground

ondyearandthirdyear

courseexpoundthemoderatereformistewDealprogramandtheadministrative

ipheralsubjects,iftheyareoffered,

includelegalphilosophy,legalhistory,legalprocess,andclinicaleducation,a"kindof

playgroundorfinishingschoolforlearningthesocialartofselfpresentationasa

lawyer".

However,asnewareasofthelawcontinuetodevelopinresponsetocontemporary

issuesandproblems,somelawschoolshaveexpandedcurriculatoincludecourses

andclinicalprogramsinenvironmentallaw,housingandurbandevelopment,women

srights,healthintheworkplace,re

alsoincreasingeffortstoteachlawininterdisciplinarycontexts,drawingonother

disciplinessuchashistory,psychology,sociology,medicine,andeconomics.

Inteachingthetraditionalcurriculum,lawteachersinalmostallthelawschoolsuse

pedinthe1870sby

ChristopherColumbusLangdellattheHarvardLawSchool,thecasemethodlooked

tothecommonlawasthesourceoflegalpriniciplesandfocussedontheteachingof

alprincipleselicitedweretobe

taughtdivorcedfromthe"grubbyworldofpractice--andalsofrompolitics,history,

economics,andsocialcontexts".Thisnarrowformalisticapproachwasjustifiedon

thegroundthatittaughtstudentshowtostate,analyze,evaluateandcompare

concretefactsituationsthusdevelopingtheirpowersandskillsofanalysis,reasoning,

andexpression.

However,thisprocessoflearning"howtothinklikealawyer"hasbeencriticizedas

havinganadverseimpactbothonthestudentsandthequalityoffuturelawyering.

Students,lawteachers,andothershavepointedtothealienation,anxiety,hostilityand

rowand

destructiveinteractionofthisdialogue,oroften"nondialogue",contributestothe

impairmentoftheabilitytocareaboutotherpeople,aprofessionalunemotionalism

snotonlythelawstudentswho

kofalawyerinvolves

continuouscontactswithclients,associates,otherlawyers,judges,witnesses,others

affectedbythelaw,andinvolvesthelawyersowngoals,attitudes,performance,

andsenseofsatisfaction.

PartTwo：LawSchoolHierarchy

DuncanKennedyhasdescribedthelawschoolsas"intenselypoliticalplaces",

characterizedbya"tradeschoolmentality,theendlessattentiontotreesatthe

expenseofforests."Thelawschoolsfunctionastheinstitutionfor"ideological

trainingforwillingserviceinthehierarchiesofthecorporatewelfarestate".Inthe

rankingandevaluationofstudents,studentslearntoaccepttheirplaceinahierarchy

whichispresentedasjustandinevitableand"sopreparethemselvesforallthe

hierarchiestofollow".Inthelawteachersmodelingofhierarchicalrelationships

withstudents,colleagues,secretariesandsupportstaff,studentslearnaparticular

styleofcondescensiontowardsperceivedinferiorsanddeferencetowardsperceived

erthesubtlebutintensepressuretoconformtothe"white,male,

middleclasstone"setbylawfacultieswhichareoverwhelminglywhite,male,and

middleclass,lawstudentsadapt,"partlyoutoffear,partlyoutofhopeofgain,

partlyoutofgenuineadmirationfortheirrolemodels".Intheseways,"legal

ducationsupportsitby

analogy,providesitagenerallegitimatingideologybyjustifyingtherulesthat

underlieit,

educationstructuresthepoolofprospectivelawyerssothattheirhierarchical

organizationseemsinevitable,andtrainsthemtolookandthinkandactjustlikeall

theotherlawyersinthesystem".

InadditiontothehierarchywithinthelawschoolssuggestedbyKennedy,other

analysesofthelawschoolsfunctionsandrelationshiptotheprofessionsuggestthe

dozenorsoelitelawschools

occupyapositionofpowerandprestigewhichispartiallyreflectedintheprofessional

careerpathsoftheirgraduatesandinthe"oldboynetworks"connectingthelaw

elsofthe"lawschoolasthe

gatewaytotheAmericanpowerelitebecamepossiblewiththeewDeal".Felix

Frankfurtersplacementnetworkforthe"bestandthebrightest"intoinfluential

publicpolicypositionsduringtheewDealinthe1930swasanearlyexampleof

histenureatHarvardandlaterwhileontheSupreme

Court,Frankfurterdevelopedan"oldboynetwork"whichwasintimatelyinvolved

withtheplacementofmanyofthe"elite"lawyers,allofwhomwerewhiteandmale,

icalFrankfurterrecruitwas"agraduateofHarvardLaw

School,politicallyliberal,usuallyrankedhighinhisclass,andeitheranobvious

productofupperclassgentilecultureoranobviousproductofaradicallydifferent

culturewhowas'comfortable'intheupperclassgentileworld".

Inthecurrenthiringpracticesofthemajorlawfirmsandinthecompetitionfor

judicialclerkships,andintheappointmentstolawfaculties,thegraduatesoftheelite

ent

studyofChicagolawyers,ZemansandRosenblumfoundthatlawyerswhoattended

"highprestigelawschoolsandgraduatedinthetop20percentoftheirclasseswere

muchmorelikelytopracticeinlargefirmsandspecializeinhighprestigefieldsof

law".Intermsofappointmentstolawfaculties,60%ofthelegalprofessions

teachingspecialistsareproducedbyfewerthan15%ofthenationsaccreditedlaw

awteacherproducerschoolsaremostlynational,locatedinurban

locations,andincludeschoolssuchasHarvard,Yale,Columbia,Universityof

Michigan,Chicago,ewYorkUniversity,orthwesternUniversity,andGeorgetown.

Ifitistruethatthefulltimefacultyofthelawschools"haveavirtualmonopolyon

whowillandwillnotenterthe(legal)profession"and"onthepowertomoldfuture

generations",thentheexistenceofahierarchyamongthelawschoolssuggeststhatan

elitegroupofschoolsisprimarilyresponsibleforstaffingthelawschools,whichin

turnproducelawyersforthehierarchieswithintheprofession.

LessonFour：JudicialSystem司法系统

Background背景

美国法院系统的突出特点是"双轨制"，即由联邦法院和州法院这两个相互独立且

平行的体系组成。联邦法院行使美国宪法授与联邦政府的司法管辖权。在刑事领

域中，联邦法院负责审理那些违犯联邦法律的刑事案件；在民事领域中，联邦法

院负责审理以合众国为一方、涉及"联邦性质的问题"，以及发生在不同州的公民

之间且有管辖权争议等种类的民事案件。州法院的司法管辖权较为广泛。按照美

国宪法的规定，凡是法律未明确授与联邦法院的司法管辖权，均属于州法院。在

实践中，绝大多数刑事案件和大多数民事案件都是由各州法院审判的。

联邦法院是一个统一的系统。它由联邦最高法院(theSupremeCourt)、13个联邦

上诉法院(CourtsofAppeals)和94个联邦地区法院(DistrictCourts)组成。此外还有

索赔法院(theCourtofClaims)、关税法院(theCustomsCourt)、关税及专利上诉法

院(theCourtofCustomsandPatentAppeals)等联邦特别法院(SpecialCourts)。各州

的法院系统并不完全相同，但一般也都包括三级法院：基层法院多称为审判法院

(TrialCourt)或巡回法院(CircuitCourt)；中级法院多称为上诉法院(AppellateCourt

orCourtofAppeals)；高级法院多称为最高法院(SupremeCourt)，但在纽约等州，

高级法院称为上诉法院。许多州也有一些专门法院，如遗嘱检验法院(Probate

Court)、青少年法院(JuvenileCourt)、家庭关系法院(CourtofDomesticRelations)

和小额索赔法院(SmallClaimsCourt)等。此外，每个城市还有自己的法院，主要

负责审理交通违法、青少年犯罪、家庭纠纷及其他与城市法令有关的案件。

美国的联邦法官都是由总统任命的；各州的法官多经选举产生，但也有些是由地

方行政长官(如州长或市长)或地方立法机关(如州议会或市议会)任命的。一般来

说，联邦和州最高法院的法官称为大法官(Justice)，上诉法院和审判法院的法官

则称为法官(Judge)。此外，有此基层法院的审判人员还称为治安法官(Justiceof

thePeace)或司法官(Magistrate)。美国的法官虽没有职称级别之分，但人们有时也

会看到"副"(Associate，或译"助理")法官的称谓。例如，美国联邦最高法院的9

名大法官中，除首席大法官(ChiefJustice)外，其他8人均可称为副(或助理)大法

官(AssociateJustice)；而一些州审判法院的巡回法官(CircuitJudge)之下也设有副

(或助理)法官(AssociateJudge)。在美国，一审案件一般由一名法官独立审判，上

诉案件则由若干名法官组成合议庭(CollegiatePanelorCollegiateBench)共同审

判。

Text课文

PartOne：Courts

ate,aswell

astheDistrictofColumbia,hasitsownfullydeveloped,independentsystemofcourts

eralcourtsarenotsuperiortothe

statecourts;theyareanindependent,coordinatesystemauthorizedbytheUnited

StatesConstitution,Art.Ⅲ,§2,

presenceoftwoparallelcourtsystemsoftenraisesquestionsconcerningthe

relationshipofthestateandfederalsystems,presentingimportantissuesoffederalism.

TheUnitedStatesSupremeCourt,composedofninejustices,sitsasthefinaland

controllingvoiceoverallthesesystems.

Althoughafewstates,suchasebraska,haveatwotieredsystem,moststates,as

wellasthefederalcourts,ansthatfor

anylitiganttherewillbetheopportunitytopleadhiscasebeforeatrialcourtandthen,

shouldhelose,

example,inthefederalsystemthetrialcourtistheUnitedStatesDistrictCourt,of

rgerstatesaredividedintotwo,three

orevenfourjudicialdistricts,dependingonpopulation,geographyandcaseload.

Thereareninety-fourdistrictsintheUnitedStatesandeachdistrictcourthasone

judge,nadversejudgmentinthedistrictcourt,

alitigantmayappealtotheUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsforthecircuitinwhichthe

reelevennumberedintermediateappellatecourtsin

thefederalsystem,eachincludinganywherefromthreetotenstatesandterritories.

Additionally,thereisaCourtofAppealsfortheDistrictofColumbia,hearingappeals

fromthefederaldistrictcourtthere,andonefortheFederalCircuit,takingappeals

fromvariousspecializedfederaltribunals,urtof

appealshasfourormorejudgeswhositinpanelsofthreetoreviewdistrictcourt

decisions,glitigantinthe

courtofappealsmay,insomecases,beabletoobtainreviewbytheUnitedStates

nthestatecourtssimilarlymayproceedthroughatrialcourt,a

stateappellatecourt,eralconstitutional

questionisinvolvedthedecisionofthestatesupremecourtmaybereviewedbythe

1988,reviewbytheSupremeCourtincivilcases

isdiscretionary;virtuallyallcivilappealsasofrighttothehighestcourthavebeen

abolished.

roaches

takenreflectdifferingphilosophieswithregardtowhatthehighestcourtshoulddo.

Forexample,inCaliforniaonlycriminalcasesinwhichcapitalpunishmenthasbeen

rly,inthefederal

courts,exceptinafewverylimitedcircumstances,appealstotheUnitedStates

SupremeCourtarediscretionary,rtdecidesforitself

whatarethemostimportantquestionsthatdeserveitsattentionandwillrefuseto

wayitsupervises

therendof

thespectrum,suchasinewYork,appealstothestateshighestcourtareasof

maryfunctionofthe

highe

necessarytocheckcarefullythestatutesofthesysteminwhichyouareappearingto

determinethespecificrulesregardingreviewbythoseappellatecourts.

PartTwo：Judges

Fewerthanoneintwentyofthoseadmittedtopracticelawisafederal,state,county,

forsomeinferiorcourts,judgesaregenerally

sso

littleuniformitythatitisdifficulttogeneralizefurtherthantopointoutthreesalient

characteristicsthatrelatetotheranksfromwhichjudgesaredrawn,tothemethodof

theirselection,andtotheirtenure.

Judgesaredrawnfromthepracticingbarandlessfrequentlyfromgovernmentservice

sintheUnitedStatesnocareerjudiciarylikethat

foundinmanyothercountriesandthereisnoprescribedroutefortheyounglaw

graduatewhoaspirestobeajudge,noapprenticeshipthatmustbeserved,noservice

standingyounglawgraduateswhoactforayearortwo

aslawclerkstothemostdistinguishedjudgesofthefederalandstatecourtshaveonly

therewardoftheexperiencetotakewiththemintopracticeandnotthepromiseofa

tisnotuncommonforavacancyonahighercourttobefilled

byajudgefromalowercourt,al

professionisnotentirelyunawareoftheadvantagesofacareerjudiciary,butitis

generallythoughtthattheyareoutweighedbytheexperienceandindependencewhich

theoutstandingjudgesofthecountry

ismhascentered

insteadontheprevalentmethodofselectionofjudges.

Statecourtjudgesareusuallyelected,commonlybypopularvote,butoccassionally

relectionhasbeenthesubjectofmuchdisapproval,

includingthatoftheAmericanBarAssociation,onthegroundthatthepubliclacks

interestinandinformationoncandidatesforjudicialofficeandthatthereforethe

uationhasbeen

somewhatimprovedsincemanylocalbarassociationshaveundertakentoevaluate

thequalificationsofcandidatesandtosupportoropposethemonthisbasis.

Since1937,theAmericanBarAssociationhasadvocatedthesubstitutionofasystem

underwhichthegovernorappointsjudgesfromalistsubmittedbyaspecial

nominatingboardandthejudgethenperiodicallystandsunopposedforreelectionby

ystemisnowineffect,forat

leastsomejudges,llgroupofstates,judges

areappointedbythegovernorsubjecttolegislativeconfirmation.

Thisisalsothemethodofselectionoffederaljudges,whoareappointedbythe

dertheappointivesystemthe

selectionofjudgesisnotimmunefrompoliticalinfluenceandappointeesareusually

esofcandidatesforthe

federaljudiciaryaresubmittedtoacommitteeoftheAmericanBarAssociationand

iceofchiefjudgeorchief

justiceisusuallyfilledinthesamemannerasotherjudicialoffices,althoughinsome

statesitisfilledfromamongthemembersofthecourtbyrotation,byseniorityof

service,efJusticeoftheUnitedStatesisappointed

bythePresident,subjecttoSenateconfirmation.

Thethirdcharacteristicisthatjudgescommonlyserveforatermofyearsratherthan

rtsofgeneraljurisdictionitistypicallyfour,six,oreightyears,and

forappellatecourts,six,eight,y,evenwhereselectionisby

popularelection,itiscustomarytoreturntoofficeforsittingjudgeswhoseservice

statecourtsandinthefederalcourtsthejudgessitfor

ronthebenchforatermofyearsorforlife,ajudgemayberemoved

cesof

removalhavebeenrareindeedandonlyahandfuloffederaljudgeshavebeen

ependenceofthejudiciaryisalsoencouraged

bytherulethatajudgeincursnocivilliabilityforjudicialacts,evenifguiltyoffraud

ricanBarAssociationsCodeofJudicialConducthasbeen

esforthe

higherjudicialofficesareusuallygoodalthoughlessthantheincomeofasuccessful

privatepractitioner,theprestigeoftheseofficesishigh,andthebenchhasbeenable

atnamesinAmerican

lawareinlargepartthenamesofitsgreatjudges.

LessonFive：Constitution宪法

Background背景

英美法系国家中常见的法律分类(ClassificationofLaws)有三种：第一种是把法律

分为普通法(CommonLaw)和衡平法(Equity)；第二种是把法律分为实体法

(SubstantiveLaw)和程序法(ProceduralLaw)；第三种是把实体法分为公法(Public

Law)和私法(PrivateLaw)。公法包括宪法、行政法、刑法、税法等；私法包括合

同法、侵权法、财产法、公司法、家庭法等。在公法中，宪法占有最为重要的地

位。虽然美国的每一个州都有自己的宪法，但是人们通常所说的宪法都指联邦宪

法。

1777年，美国联邦议会通过了"联邦条例"(ArticlesofConfederationandPerpetual

Union)。这是美国最早的宪法性法律文件。1789年，美国立法机构大陆会议又通

过了一部新的宪法性文件，即联邦宪法。这部宪法至今仍然是美国的最高法律。

美国联邦宪法最初只有7条、近8000字，后来又补充了一系列修正案

(Amendments)。前10条修正案是作为一个整体--合称为"人权法案"(theBillof

Rights)--于1789年由国会通过，于1791年由11个州批准而生效的。目前，美国

联邦宪法共有27条修正案。正因为美国联邦宪法内容简洁、富有灵活性，而且

以修正案方式不断完善，所以它才成为世界上"寿命最长"的成文宪法。

Text课文

PartOne：TheConstitutionasSupremeLaw

tution,arelativelysimpledocument,istheselfdesignated

"supremelawoftheland".Thisclauseistakentomeanthatwhenstateconstitutions,

orlawspassedbystatelegislaturesorthenationalCongress,arefoundtoconflict

withthefederalConstitution,onshandeddownbythe

SupremeCourtoverthecourseoftwocenturieshaveconfirmedandstrengthenedthis

doctrineofconstitutionalsupremacy.

FinalauthorityisvestedintheAmericanpeople,whocanchangethefundamentallaw

iftheywish,byamendingtheConstitution,or--intheory,atleast--draftinganewone.

Thepeoplesauthorityisnotexerciseddirectly,today

businessofgovernmentisdelegatedbythepeopletopublicofficials,bothelectedand

appointed.

ublicactionsmustconformtothe

dofficials

muststandforreelectionatperiodicintervals,whentheirrecordissubjectto

tedofficialsserveatthepleasureofthepersonor

authoritywhoappointedthem,andmayberemovedwhentheirperformanceis

eptiontothisisthelifetimeappointmentbythePresidentof

JusticesoftheSupremeCourtandotherfederaljudges.

Mostcommonly,

Constitution,however,doesmakeprovisionfortheremovalofapublicofficialfrom

office,incasesofextrememisconductormalfeasance,bytheprocessofimpeachment.

ArticleⅡ,Section4reads:

"ThePresident,VicePresident,andallcivilofficersoftheUnitedStates,shallbe

removedfromofficeonimpeachmentfor,andconvictionof,treason,bribery,orother

highcrimesandmisdemeanors."

Insuchcases,

publicofficialisthentriedintheSenate,withtheChiefJusticeoftheUnitedStates

presidingatthetrial.

ast200

years,alshavebeenimpeached:ninejudges,anAssociateJustice

oftheSupremeCourt,aSecretaryofWar,aSenator,andaPresident,AndrewJohnson.

(InthecaseofanotherPresident,Richardixon,althoughtheHouseJudiciary

CommitteerecommendedimpeachmentthePresidentresignedbeforeaHousevote

wastaken.)Outofthethirteencases,onlyfourjudgeshavebeenconvictedand

fficialsaresimilarlysubjecttoimpeachmentbythe

legislaturesoftheirrespectivestates.

Inadditiontosettingforthgeneralpoliticalideas,theConstitutionprovidesthe

eemajorarticlesdescribethethree

branchesofthenationalgovernment--legislative,executiveandjudicial--eachwith

tsonwhichthelegislativebranchcanmake

lawsaresetoutinconsiderabledetail,althoughovertheyearsjudicialdecisionshave

ersanddutiesofthePresident,

asheadoftheexecutivebranch,moffederalcourtsisoutlined,

anditsrelationshiptootherbranchesofgovernmentissetforth.

PartTwo：ThePrinciplesofGovernment

AlthoughtheConstitutionhaschangedinmanyaspectssinceitwasfirstadopted,its

basicprinciplesremainthesamenowasin1789:

Thethreemainbranchesofgovernmentareseparateanddistinctfromoneanother.

Thepowersgiventoeacharedelicatelybalancedbythepowersoftheothertwo.

Eachbranchservesasacheckonpotentialexcessesoftheothers.

TheConstitution,togetherwithlawsproperlypassedaccordingtoitsprovisions,and

treatiesenteredintobythePresidentandapprovedbytheSenate,standsaboveall

otherlaws,executiveactsandregulations.

tes

areequal,andnonecanreceivespecialtreatmentfromthefederalgovernment.

WithinthelimitsoftheConstitution,eachstatemustrecognizeandrespectthelaws

oftheothers.

Stategovernments,likethefederalgovernment,mustberepublicaninform,with

finalauthorityrestinginthepeople.

Thepeoplehavetherighttochangetheirformofgovernmentbylegalmeansdefined

intheConstitutionitself.

PartThree:ProvisionsforAmendment

TheauthorsoftheConstitutionwerekeenlyawarethatchangeswouldbeneeded

fromtimetotimeiftheConstitutionweretoendureandkeeppacewiththegrowthof

realsoconsciousthattheprocessofchangeshouldnotbefacile,

ametoken,they

wantedtoassurethataminoritycouldnotblockactiondesiredbymostofthepeople.

TheirsolutionwastodeviseadualprocessbywhichtheConstitutioncouldbe

gress,byatwothirdsvoteineachhouse,mayinitiatean

egislaturesoftwothirdsofthestatesmayaskCongresstocall

ercase,amendments

musthavetheapprovalofthreefourthsofthestatesbeforetheyenterintoforce.

AsidefromthedirectprocessofchangingtheConstitutionitself,theeffectofits

nthehistoryofthe

republic,n,theSupremeCourtestablished

thedoctrineofjudicialreview,whichisthepoweroftheCourttointerpretactsof

trinealsoembracesthepowerof

theCourttoexplainthemeaningofvarioussectionsoftheConstitutionastheyapply

tochanginglegal,political,eyears,aseries

ofCourtdecisions,onissuesrangingfromgovernmentalregulationofradioand

televisiontotherightsoftheaccusedincriminalcases,hashadtheeffectofaltering

thethrustofconstitutionallaw,withnosubstantivechangeintheConstitutionitself.

Congressionallegislation,passedtoimplementprovisionsofthebasiclaw,ortoadapt

ittochangingconditions,alsobroadensand,insubtleways,changesthemeaningof

oint,therulesandregulationsofthemyriadagenciesofthe

dtestinbothcasesiswhether,

intheopinionofthecourts,suchlegislationandrulesareinconformitywiththe

intentandpurposesoftheConstitutionitself.

法律英语词汇表

本词汇表来自何家弘的法律英语教材，是由可爱的学生们录入，提供给大家共享。

A

absoluteproof绝对证明

absoluteproperty绝对财产（权）

abstractoftitle产权书摘要

accelerationclause提前（偿还）条款

acceptance承诺

accidentreport事故报告

accidentinsurance意外保险

accusation指控；控告

accusatorialprocedure控告程序

accusatorialprocessofproof控告证明过程（程序）

accusatorialsystem控告或诉讼程序

accused被指控者

accuser控告人

acknowledgement认知(书)

acquittal无罪判决

act条例；作为

ActforthepreventionofFraudsandPerjuries《预防诈欺和伪证条例》

action诉讼；作为

actuallosses实际损失

adjudication裁决；裁定

administrativelaw行政法

administrativelawjudge行政法法官

administrativeprocedure行政程序

administrator管理人；监管人

admissible可采的

admissibility可采性

admit采用；允许

adoption收养

adulterousconduct通奸行为

advalorempropertytax从价财产税

adversarialhearing对抗式听证会

adversarialprocess对抗式程序

adversary对手

adversarytrialsystem对抗式（或抗辩）审判制度

advocacy出庭辩护；诉讼代理

advocate辩护人；诉讼代理人

affidavit正式书面陈述

affirm维持（原判）

affirmation保证书；证词

affirmative确保的

agency（行政）机关

agencyaction机关（行政）机关

agreeduponremedies补救协议

agreement协议

agreement-as-written书面协议

agreement-in-fact事实协议

alibi阿里白（不在犯罪场的证明）

alienationofaffection离间夫妻关系

allegation声称；指控

allege诉称；指控

allegedoffense所控罪行

alternatejuror替补陪审员

amendment修正案

AmericanBarAssociation美国律师协会

AmericanLawInstitute美国法学会

analogy类推

Anglo-AmericanLegalSystem英美法系

anonymousaccusation匿名控告

appeal上诉

appear出庭

appellant上诉人

appellateaction上诉行为

appellatecourt上诉法院

appellee被上诉人

appealer上诉人

appropriate拨款

appurtenant附属物

arbiter仲裁人

arbitrary武断的

arbitration仲裁

arraignment初审

array陪审员名单

arrest逮捕

arrestwarrant逮捕令（证）

arrestee被捕人

article条款，文章

articleofauthority授权条款

articlesofconfederation《联帮条例》

articlesofincorporation公司组织章程

artificialperson法人

AsianAmericanlegaldefenseandeducationfund亚裔美国人法律辩护与教育基金

会

assault意图或威胁伤害

assert主张，宣称

asset资产

assistantattorney助理法官

associatejudge副法官

associatejustice副大法官

assumption违约合同，违约赔偿之诉

assumption假定

attempt意图，企图

attemptedescape逃脱未遂

attestation证词

attorney代理人，律师

attorneyatlaw律师

attorneygeneral检察长

authentication鉴定

authority权力，法源，权威性依据

automobileinsurance机动车保险

automobiletort机动车侵权行为

autonomy自治（权）

B

ban禁令，禁止

banishment流放

bankruptcy破产

bankruptcydischarge破产债务解除

bankruptcyjudge破产法官

bar律师职业

barassociation律师协会

barrister出庭律师

battery殴打

benchtrial法官审

beneficiary受益人

benefit收益，福得

bigamy重婚罪

billoflading提单

billofright《人权法案》

bindover具保，具结

binder临时保险单

binding有约束力

bindingcontract有约束力的合同

bindingforce约束力

bindinginterpretation有约束力的解释

black-letterlaw（普通接受之基本原则的）黑体字法

blacknationbarassociation全美黑人律师协会

blueskylaw蓝天法（关于股票买卖控制的法律）

BoardofGovernors（ABA）（美国律师协会的）董事会

bodyoflaw法体

bond债券；保释金

bondinstrument债券契据

branding鞭笞

breach违约；破坏

bride贿赂

bribery贿赂（罪）

bright-linetest明显界限检验标准

broker中间人

brokeragefee佣金；中介费

brother-sistercorporation兄弟公司；姊妹公司

BulkSalesAct《大宗销售条例》

burden责任

burdenofgoingforwardwiththeevidence先行举证责任

burdenofpersuasion说服责任；证明责任

burdenofproducingevidence举证责任

burdenofproof证明责任

burglary入室盗窃（罪）

businesscorporation实业公司

businesslaw实业法

businessorganization实业组织

buy-outagreement（股权）承买协议

buy-sellagreement（股权）买卖协议

bylaws（内部）章程

C

CaliforniaPenalCode《加州刑法典》capitalaccount资本帐户

capitalcrime可判死刑罪

capitalpunishment死刑

capitalsurplus资本盈余

capitationtax人头税

careercriminal职业罪犯

careerjudiciary职业法官

casebriefing案情摘要

case-in-chief主诉

caselaw判例法

casemethod案例教学法

casereport判决报告

casereports判例汇编

casualtyinsurance（意外伤害）保险

catalog商品目录（单）

certificate证书

certificateofexistence实体存在证明（书）

challenge置疑；挑战

challengeforcause有理回避

chancerycourt衡平法院

charginginstrument控告文件

checksandbalances制衡（原则）

chiefjudge首席法官

chiefjustice首席大法官

childabuse虐待儿童

circuitcourt巡回法院

circuitjudge巡回法官

circumstantialevidence旁证；情况证据

citation引证

cite援引；传讯

civilcourt民事法

civilforfeiture民事罚没

civillaw民法

CivilLawLegalSystem民法体系

civilliability民事责任

civilLiberty民事自由

civilLitigation民事诉讼

civilprocedure民事诉讼程序

civilsuit民事诉讼

Civiltrial民事审判